Thomas Nagel’s ‘The Last Word’

An analysis of Nagel’s defense of reason against skepticism and subjectivism.

About Thomas Nagel

An American philosopher and professor at New York University, Thomas Nagel is best known for his expertise in legal philosophy, political philosophy and ethics. He has worked widely in areas like philosophy of mind and the subjectivity and objectivity of viewpoints.

About The Last Word

Nagel gives arguments for defense of reason against subjectivism and skepticism in his book, The Last Word. He acknowledges the sophistication that forms of relativism/subjectivism might have, while shedding light on the blatant self-contradiction such concepts entail.

He cleverly defines reason as the category of thought with universal authority that we cannot get outside of, and where justification and understanding come to an end.

Two Main Features of Reason

Universality

If reason exists, it must be universal. Nagel says that this would allow for distancing oneself from societal norms and beliefs.

Even though reason is present in everyone, it still has an element of sameness (universality). We recognize reason as an authority which is universal, as opposed to being societal or individual.

Reason is independent in the sense that it does not rely on the point of view of any group or individual for its validity (and hence is objective).

The methods of justification that reason presents are necessarily non-local and non-relative. These help discriminate between inferences that are legitimate and those that are not.

This principle of universality has been rejected by relativists and subjectivists.

Generality

Reason is general in the sense that it is valid not only for the individual using it to reach a particular conclusion, but also for anyone else who wishes to reach the same conclusion.

If the given reason is indirect in the sense that it is not used to directly derive the conclusion, then it must be corroborated by further reasons, which also share the character of generality. In this way, it can be used for both identical and (relevant) similar instances.

The aim is to reach universal and exception-less principles through reason.

Challenges to Reason

The challenge to reason is internal in nature. It is the objectivity of reason that is in question here. It might be the case that a conclusion (valid/invalid) is not derived with reason, but instead is a manifestation of societal/individual biases/views, which have come to be objectively rationalized by intellectual self-deception.

Refutation of Subjectivism and Relativism

Nagel strongly opposes subjectivism/relativism while supporting the authority of reason. As a rationalist, he proclaims that the former fall into self-contradiction and vacuity.

Self-contradiction occurs when subjectivism/relativism is used to reach the conclusion that nothing is the case, and vacuity (lack of thought) follows because no knowledge can be reached.

As per Nagel, subjectivists/relativists overlook the vitality of reason and the role it plays in the process of finding answers to the most fundamental and important questions.

Explaining the Argument Against Subjectivism

Nagel calls the subjectivist/relativist doctrines disastrous because their appeal leads to a need to reject intellectually grounded critique by those who are incapable or unwilling of responding to the criticism in a proper intellectual battle.

It is because of these doctrines that the lethargy in the contemporary culture has increased. Nagel says that this has resulted in a steady decrease in serious arguments throughout the ‘lower reaches’ of social sciences and humanities.

As his decisive point, Nagel expresses that all types of claims and judgements are inherently objective in their intent. Each paints what it believes to be the only true picture in that particular, unconditional context. Hence, there cannot be a circular justification for the judgement of relativity/conditionality.

Justifying the Title

For Nagel, everything rests on the outcome of debate over ‘the last word’. The subjectivists’ wish is to give the last word to the claim that justifications end with our language and practices. On the other hand, Nagel wishes for this last word to be given to the justifications themselves.

The Authority of Reason

Nagel believed reason to be such an authority that has no appeal beyond itself. Its validity is unconditional as it is necessarily used in any criticism to itself. The fact that it plays a major role in deciding our beliefs, decisions and desires cannot be denied.

As the same time, it is important to note that even reason is not free from mistakes. Sometimes, it is realized afterwards that the source of a proposition is unfounded. In such cases, rectification can be made with the help of further reasoning.